President Andrew Johnson essays

President Andrew Johnson papers It is said that President Andrew Johnson was one of the most exceedingly awful presidents in American History, being the first of just two presidents to have been arraigned by the House of Representatives. Be that as it may, was the indictment of Andrew Johnson defended? Andrew Johnson was evidence that anybody gets an opportunity at making it throughout everyday life, paying little mind to your families status or riches. Conceived in Raleigh, North Carolina to about unskilled guardians, Johnsons father kicked the bucket when he was exceptionally youthful leaving his mom to help him and his sibling. At 14 years old Johnson and his sibling were filling in as understudies for the nearby tailor. Subsequent to moving to Greeneville, Tennessee in 1827 he opened his own tailor shop. (www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com) Johnson turned out to be associated with legislative issues. In 1829 he was chosen for his town committee, and as civic chairman in 1831. He invested energy in the Tennessee state council, until he was chosen for congress in 1843. Johnson was chosen for the US senate in 1857 to speak to Tennessee. (www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com) During the Civil war Johnson didn't come back toward the south, rather he stayed and joined the republicans. In 1862, Lincoln named him the states military representative. Abraham Lincoln picked Johnson as his bad habit presidential running mate in the appointment of 1864. At the point when president Lincoln was killed in 1865, Johnson was confirmed as the new president. (www.crf-usa.org) While Johnson was president he thought of an arrangement to recreate the south and readmit them into the Union. During the races for the new southern government agents the dark liberated men were not permitted to cast a ballot, Johnson concurred with this idiom It would raise a war of races(www.crf-usa.org) In December when the congress met they were offended that the men who had played huge parts in driving the insubordination were by and by in the intensity of the South. Exacerbating the situation the southern governments were making ... <!

Consideration in English Law is Required in Every Contract Essay

Thought in English Law is Required in Every Contract - Essay Example This exposition will investigate English law of agreements corresponding to thought. Diagram Consideration can be portrayed as the cost to which a guarantee is given in kind for something different. By and large, guarantees need not to be as far as cash however in numerous different structures. As indicated by the law of English agreements, on the off chance that an understanding or a guarantee isn't upheld by thought, at that point it is considered nudum pactum (an exposed guarantee) and it isn't enforceable by law. The English agreements laws have generally had the proviso of thought for the agreement to be acknowledged as. For example, in enormous or important exchanges, the law necessitates that all gatherings bring something of significant worth â€Å"consideration† for an agreement to be legitimately authoritative. This law of thought was intended to guarantee that all gatherings are given reasonable medications or equivalent remaining in the development of agreements (J enks, 2010). This condition is significant particularly in situations where issues emerge after the development of an agreement. Thought law can be utilized is unraveling changes to the agreement law in cases, for example, in troubleshooting the impartial regulation of promissory estoppels. This is the situation whereby prior terms or understandings can't be upheld in the arrangement of cases. Thought is viewed as an understanding that had the goals of the terms to be lawfully authoritative. Thought can be whatever is adequate in that it very well may be weighted and chosen to have financial worth (Cruz, 2008). English courts utilize thought in choosing whether guarantees or agreements are legitimate or enforceable. A thought can't be attracted the past except if there are express terms of a solicitation by both of the gatherings. A few cases have introduced troublesome circumstances for arrangement of cases, for example, part installment of obligations or undertaking obligations pr esently committed. This was obvious on account of Williams versus Roffey where the court concluded that the agreement was lawful since the obligations attempted by Williams went past his legitimately committed obligations (Chitty, 2006). Contemplations are significant in English law in that they are utilized in ensuring that the provisions of the agreement can be enforceable. This is particularly obvious in cases or agreements that should be implemented later on. However, the most utilized type of the term thought in contracts is when there is an immediate trade of merchandise for cash or products for products. Thought in contracts is typically enforceable and drilled for all intents and purposes when something has been given or guaranteed in return for something different. A guarantee in English law is an agreement if a guarantee or thought is connected to the guarantee (Atkins, 1999). For example, in the event that you guarantee to pay or purchase somebody a blessing who need to r ecord it or make a deed. On account of Currie versus Misa of 1875, thought in the feeling of law comprises of intrigue, advantage or benefit accumulating to one individual and hindrance or loss of duty to be attempted by the other party. The comprehension and execution of these agreements are very straightforward. Now and again the execution or usage of the law of agreements is troublesome as on account of Dunlop Pneumatic Tire Co Ltd versus Selfridge and Co Ltd of 1915, whereby thought was hard to authorize. In, for example, case, there was trade of guarantees where neither of them was upheld. The creation of the

Education and Teaching Essay - 275 Words

Education and Teaching (Essay Sample) Content: LESSON PLANNER -YOUR NAME____________________________Page 1 PART A: LESSON PLAN Year/Level: Syllabus topic: DANCE Lesson Topic: INTRODUCTION TO DANCE Studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ characteristics: average ability Duration: (60minutes) Prior knowledge/skills requiredThe students should have basic knowledge in dance.The students should have the interest in dance. Resources: Projector, Personal Computer, CD ROM and Drive, and White board.The students shall be provided with handouts describing the history of dance.Learning materials on the significance of dance shall also be available Learning environment: The lesson shall take place in the dance laboratory. The laboratory offers a favourable environment for the dance lesson given that it has dancing tools such the relevant costumes. The laboratory has music tools such as the piano, drums, and a computer to simulate the tunes. The dance labs are equipped with sound proof material making it an only class affair, thus preventing di straction. ContextRole of the studentDevelop knowledge, understanding and skills about dance as an art-form through dance performance as a means of developing dance technique and performance quality to communicate ideas.Develop knowledge, understanding and skills about dance as an art-form through dance composition as a means of creating and structuring movement to express and communicate ideas.Develop knowledge, understanding and skills about dance as an art-form through dance appreciation as a means of describing and analyzing dance as an expression of ideas within a social, cultural or historical context.Value and appreciate their engagement in the study of dance as an art-form.Role of the learnersDescribe and analyze dance as the communication of ideas within a context.Describe the link between their performances and compositions and dance works of art.Applies understandings and experiences drawn from their own work and dance works of art. Choice of ICTThe lesson shall employ Da ncer Designer software that sends techno-electronic messages. Techno and Electronica is the message transmitted by this superb bundle of libraries. New York Dance supplies the basic materials needed to create music that spans House, Electro, Jungle and more. Futurist Drum 'n' Bass give an individual even more fine beats and synth elements. Techno Club Grooves 1: Funky xtreams I and Vintage Analog Synths: Vortexual Amplitude adds character by giving one access to rare and vintage gear. Processed Drumkits: Zero-Gravity Beats adds something completely unique and original - acoustic drum performances by former Sugarcube Siggi Baldursson, tweaked and processed into pulverizing grooves, made to order for intense dance music. Assessment of learning:Assessment is an essential and integrated part of teaching and learning. Assessment:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ reflects a belief that all students can improveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ involves setting learning goals with studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ helps students know a nd recognize the standards they are aiming forà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ involves students in self-assessment and peer assessmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ provides feedback that helps students understand the next steps in learning and plan howto achieve themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ involves teachers, students and parents in reflecting on assessment data.As the teacher, I will use both formative and summative assessment.The formative format encompasses question-answer system during the lesson. The students should be able to answer questions orally in relation to the topic of study. Depending on the ease at which the learners give the answers, the teacher will be able to make a sound assessment of the learning process.The summative format assessment involves giving the students homework and written assignments. The ability to answer these questions satisfactorily would mean that the learning was effective. LESSON PLANNER Page 2 Learning outcomes: (number and descriptor from BOSTES or ACARA syllabus)4.1.1 demonstr ates an understanding of safe dance practice and appropriate dance technique in the performance of combinations, sequences and dances4.1.2 demonstrates aspects of the elements of dance in dance performance4.1.3 demonstrates an understanding of aspects of performance quality through the performance of locomotor and non-locomotor combinations, sequences and dances4.2.1 identifies and explores aspects of the elements of dance in response to a range of stimuli4.2.2 composes dance movement, using the elements of dance, that communicates ideas4.3.1 describes dance performances through the elements of dance4.3.2 identifies that dance works of art express ideas5.1.1 demonstrates an understanding of safe dance practice and appropriate dance technique with increasing skill and complexity in the performance of combinations, sequences and dances5.1.2 demonstrates enhanced dance technique by manipulating aspects of the elements of dance5.1.3 demonstrates an understanding and application of aspec ts of performance quality and interpretation through performance5.2.1 explores the elements of dance as the basis of the communication of ideas5.2.2 composes and structures dance movement that communicates an idea5.3.1 describes and analyses dance as the communication of ideas within a context5.3.2 identifies and analyses the link between their performances and compositions and dance works of art5.3.3 Applies understandings and experiences drawn from their own work and dance works of art. General capabilityLiteracy Students learn to: * Develop knowledge, understanding and skills about dance as an art-form through dance appreciation as a means of describing and analyzing dance as an expression of ideas within a social, cultural or historical context. * Interpret numbers when they are used for different purposes * Understand how numbers can be expressed * Use estimation techniques appropriately to make and check calculations Use a variety of calculation methods * Choose and use approp riate technology * Use the language of measurement appropriate to the task * Choose and use measuring tools and instruments appropriate to the task * Use estimation techniques * Use measurement techniques to solve problems * Recognise that some measures are obtained by combining two or more other measures * Recognise and describe common shapes Students learn about: * Use shapes appropriate to the task * Choose and use appropriate equipment for a particular purpose * Recognise and interpret the conventions of visual representation * Use spatial techniques to solve problems * Recognise and understand the part chance plays in everyday life * Recognise and interpret estimates of chance events * Judge the quality and appropriateness of data collection * Understand and use common methods of summarising and displaying data * Make and question judgements based upon data presented * Make predictions based upon data presented Timing Lesson content Student activity Teacher activity 5 Minutes I ntroduction Listening, asking questions,Taking notes, instructions, emails, and Wikis. Explaining and describing. 30 Minutes Dance an art form-Dance as an art form is the overarching philosophy of the syllabus and it defines the studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ artistic, aesthetic and cultural education through dance. -In the study of dance as an artform students develop knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"throughà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"aboutà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬the interrelated experiences of performing, composing and appreciating their own dances, the dances of others, and dances as works of art in the public domain. Experience with theelements of dance and the language of dance (i.e. terminology) enables students tocommunicate physically, verbally and in written forms in all aspects of performance, composition and appreciation. Through the practices of performance, composition and appreciation students learn about the distinctive ways in which they can express t heir own experiences. They also learn about the development of cultural meanings and artistic traditions. Listening Explaining 15 Minutes Elements of Movementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the dancing bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the elements of dance (space, time and dynamics)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Relationships. Demonstrate dances taught. Guide the students through the demonstration 10 Minutes Assessment Answering the given questions Taking questions PART B: Justification Dance DesignerNameInstitutionTutorCourseDateDance DesignerDance Designer is considered powerful software with the ability to allow the choreographer to visualize, integrate, review and document their work. The software supports virtually every discipline of dance including modern, jazz, ballet hip hop, lyrical, figure skating, tap and cheer. In the contemporary dance teaching, the instructor is more than just a teacher but also a choreographer.To the Dance Designer software allows the instructor to make decisions on creativity of the dance. T herefore, the learners gain the same skills of creativity in their dance lessons. A dance teacher or rather instructor is charged with the responsibility of training choreographers. The learners in this case are the choreographers. The Dance Designer software is the best tool for a dance lesson since it allows for pure choreography. According to Churchill et.al (2013), choreography is the practice of dance composition with the human bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s movement. Therefore, this software tool...

Personal Statement Five Forces - 1004 Words

Five forces Based upon the results of the questionnaire, it shows me that I am an extravert. Which is funny because I saw myself as one anyway, as I am out going and like to be action oriented most of the time. I do still tend to have some characteristics of not trusting many people. Which, in most cases I really do not trust a lot of what people have to say. I am more reluctant as I get older on how much I depend on people, so maybe that is why I have a hard time trusting who I am around. I have always been a loner like an introvert might be. That is because I do seem to have a small area of trust for people. I find that to be one of my biggest weaknesses that I am trying to work on and overcome. I do tend to be more of an assertive type of person. I like my ideas being heard and if I have something to say I want to say it. I do not really have a problem bringing attention to myself. I like when I am challenged with something that most people cannot come up with a solution and the n I do. Those types of situations seem to stimulate me and make me work harder. I saw that my morality scale was a 70 which was high on the scale. That is simply because I believe in just being honest with people. If I do not agree with something or I know something can be done more efficiently another way, I normally, will speak up and tell people what I think about the situation. Sure, I try to be sincere at the same time, but I will try to get my point across throughout the discussion. IShow MoreRelatedDefining The Strategic Principle Of Mission Statements905 Words   |  4 PagesDefine the strategic principle of: Mission Statements. As the authors Dess, McNamara, and Eisner pointed out in the text book, the mission statements is a set of organizational goals that includes the purpose of the organization, its scope of operations, and the basis of its competitive advantage. 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Is The Second Sex Beauvoirs Application of Sartrean...

Is The Second Sex Beauvoirs Application of Sartrean Existentialism? ABSTRACT: Simone de Beauvoirs 1949 feminist masterpiece, The Second Sex, has traditionally been read as an application of Sartrean existentialism to the problem of women. Critics have claimed a Sartrean origin for Beauvoirs central theses: that under patriarchy woman is the Other, and that one is not born a woman, but becomes one. An analysis of Beauvoirs recently discovered 1927 diary, written while she was a philosophy student at the Sorbonne, two years before her first meeting with Sartre, challenges this interpretation. In this diary, Beauvoir affirms her commitment to doing philosophy, defines the philosophical problem of the opposition of self and other,†¦show more content†¦The political philosopher, Sonia Kruks, in a 1995 essay, writes that: The central claim of The Second Sex -- one is not born a woman but becomes one--presupposes Sartres argument that existence precedes essence: that human beings become what they are on the basis of no pre-given necessity or nature (Kruks 1). Ive argued myself, in a early essay, that this voluntarism reflects a Sartrean influence. Kate and Edward Fullbrook (1994) have challenged these interpretations of Beauvoir as a Sartrean, arguing that Beauvoirs metaphysical novel, She Came to Stay (1943), traditionally assumed to be an application of Sartres Being and Nothingness (1943), was actually its philosophical source. Another challenge to the traditional interpretation of Beauvoir as a Sartrean is found in Beauvoirs 1927 diary. Discovered by Sylvie Le Bon de Beauvoir, Beauvoirs adopted daughter and literary executor, after Beauvoirs death, and deposited in the BibliothÃ…  que Nationale in 1990, Beauvoirs handwritten diary has been transcribed by Barbara Klaw, with the assistance of Sylvie Le Bon de Beauvoir, and myself. In the 1927 diary, written while Beauvoir was a philosophy student at the Sorbonne, two years before her first meeting with Jean-Paul Sartre in 1929, she lays out the foundations of her laterShow MoreRelatedExistentialism vs Essentialism23287 Words   |  94 PagesEssentialism vs. Existentialism Essentialism: A belief that things have a set of characteristics that make them what they are, amp; that the task of science and philosophy is their discovery amp; expression; the doctrine that essence is prior to existence While, Existentialism:A philosophical theory or approach, that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free amp; responsible agent, determining their own development through acts of the will. Existentialism * is

AAA Framework for Toyota Motor Corporation Free Sample

Question: Discuss about the AAA Framework for Toyota Motor Corporation. Answer: Introduction Toyota Motor Corporation is one of the most successful automobile manufacturing company of Japan. As stated in Toyota motor corporation global Website(2009),in the year 2016, it has been ranked as the 13th largest automotive manufacturing company. It is quite important for such a renowned company to integrate various operational strategies in order to maintain its position. One of the most important strategical framework , that was initiated by Pankaj Ghemawat, is the AAA strategy (Ghemawat 2015). It helps in analysing the strategies related to adaptation, aggregation and arbitrage of a company. In this report, the AAA framework for the Toyota company would be analysed. Adaptation Toyota is a global company, that has its manufacturing units all over the world. Toyota has manufactured various luxury, comfort, and SUV cars. Being an international company, Toyota has been successful in achieving accelerated demand with its high quality products. The company has been segregating its market in accordance to the demand and thereby helps in fulfilling the needs of the customers. The company has adapted various engineering developments along with technological enhancement, that thereby helps the company to build their car models as per the current demand of the people (Collis 2015). Yaris, Corolla, RAV4, Fortuner, Tacoma, Sienna are some of the well known models of the company. Aggregation Toyota very successfully acknowledges the cultures of the countries where it operates. This helps the company to perform well, raise its sales and revenues generated from manufacturing different automobiles. This feature, thereby, provides the long run scope for the company. Being an international company, Toyota has been successfully acquiring various mergers and acquisitions that has enables the company to lower its cost of manufacturing its products (Das and Dutta 2012). This has raised the level of both investments and revenues, and has managed to attract customers towards the company. The company successfully conducts various geographical, administrative and economical aggregation that helps in implementing successful expansion of the company. Arbitrage Toyota performs cultural arbitrage that helps in enduring the cultures of various countries where it operates. It accesses the needs accordingly and results in manufacturing better cars, improving the quality of the company (Collis 2015). It promotes geographical arbitrage by promoting its products across the borders. By abiding the legal and administrative arbitrage of all its operational companies, Toyota successfully keeps a check on the risk management related to the company. Conclusion The AAA triangle proposition generated by Pankaj Ghemawat is one of the vital framework that consists of adaptation, aggregation and arbitrage strategies of a company (Ghemawat 2015). In this report the AAA framework for the Toyota automobile manufacturing company has been conducted, that helps in providing a clear view of how the company proposes various policies in accordance with these three elements, thereby, enhancing the growth of the company. References Collis, D.J., 2015. The Value of Breadth and the Importance of Differences. InEmerging Economies and Multinational Enterprises(pp. 29-33). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Das, D. and Dutta, P., 2012. A system dynamics framework for an integrated forward-reverse supply chain with fuzzy demand and fuzzy collection rate under possibility constraints.framework,8, p.9. Ghemawat, P., 2015. From International Business to Intranational Business. InEmerging Economies and Multinational Enterprises(pp. 5-28). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Toyota motor corporation global website. (2009). Toyota motor corporation global website. [online] Available at: https://www.toyota-global.com/ [Accessed 27 Sep. 2016].

Within the Context of 1474-1598 to What Extent Did Ferdinand and Isabella Lay the Foundations for a Golden Age Essay Example

Within the Context of 1474-1598 to What Extent Did Ferdinand and Isabella Lay the Foundations for a Golden Age? Essay Spain’s perceived â€Å"Golden Age† is a broad classification unconfined to a specific era. The Golden Age has long been affiliated with the growth of a uniquely Spanish identity that arose with the flourishing of arts, architecture and literature expanding notably in the years of Phillip II, and flourishing in the 17th century – the same century traditionalist historians identify as the decline of Spain. To consider the golden age of Spain on a purely art and literature basis however misses the point, the Golden Age in all contexts appeared from the development of the Spanish Empire. On the European stage Spain appeared at the height of its â€Å"Golden Age† during the reign of Phillip II, Spain was the centre piece of the world’s greatest power controlled by the Hapsburg dynasty. Outwardly Spain was a religiously unified nation of great power, wealth and honour. Yet the â€Å"Golden Age† was of little substance on a domestic scale, built on a perceived vision of what Spain was like, whilst its periodic decline was built upon greater understanding of what Spain was. There was little to show of a â€Å"Golden Age† outside the confinements of the inner aristocracy in the 16th century, it’s so called decline thereafter were the true colours of Spain shining though. Failure at a domestic level inevitably brought down the golden era of foreign policy. The Catholics Kings role in this dramatic rise and fall in the Golden Age was limited, yet essential. As the founders of Spain, they set the tone of foreign and domestic policy, religion and most importantly (although indirectly), the succession. We will write a custom essay sample on Within the Context of 1474-1598 to What Extent Did Ferdinand and Isabella Lay the Foundations for a Golden Age? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Within the Context of 1474-1598 to What Extent Did Ferdinand and Isabella Lay the Foundations for a Golden Age? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Within the Context of 1474-1598 to What Extent Did Ferdinand and Isabella Lay the Foundations for a Golden Age? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Ferdinand and Isabella presided over the making of Spain; as young heirs and monarchs they united Aragon and Castile under one crown. For Aragon this was overwhelmingly desirable, for political reasons more than any imperialistic view of unification and described by Lotherington as â€Å"Undoubtedly the most politically effective partnership† . In Aragon expansion in Italy had stalled and she was threatened by the French in both the Mediterranean and to the north in Navarre. In Castile there was much opposition to the marriage; as noble factions of great power and influence were split over the two potential Castilian heirs Juana and Isabella. Alfonso the archbishop of Toledo proposed Isabella’s marriage to Ferdinand in search of allies, and despite her young age Isabella herself proved to be influential in the decision making. Unification had been attempted before as both monarchs where cousins, yet their marriage in 1469 would be of deciding significance n the making of Spain in the Golden Age to come. The Peninsula was the bedrock of the Catholic Kings foreign policy. For Isabella â€Å"Her greatest ambition was to carry to completion the reconquista of the peninsula† ,thus naturally Portugal was the first choice of succession for the monarchs of both kingdoms, but their fortunes were not to be fulfilled due to the misfortune of the deaths of their two children. This dream of a united Peninsula was not lost however, and stayed in the minds of Castilians and was notably evident in the demands of the Comuneros revolt â€Å"They should choose her (Isabella of Portugal), according to the desire of his kingdoms† The Catholic Kings influential desire of a united peninsula had worn off on future generations and laid the foundations for their great great grandson Phillip II to unite Hispania under one monarch. . The foundations of a united Spain however where no more than a â€Å"dynastic bundle of states† and lay in the balance following Isabella’s (of Castile) death in 1504. Despite the unity the Catholic kings displayed swearing to the Cortez of Aragon and Castile and administrating both kingdoms together such unity always was a one sided arrangement. Ferdinand under the marriage arrangements was contracted to live in Castile and govern Aragon though the newly formed Councils of state, Kamen explains â€Å"The Marriage treaty drawn up for Ferdinand laid down the basic limits to Ferdinand’s future authority† Economically and in governance the two remained separate entities in all but foreign policy. Some Historians consider Isabella’s decision to pass the crown to the Hapsburgs rather than Aragon as evidence of Isabella’s disunity. Lockyer claims; â€Å"she showed how little she appreciated the concept of Spanish unity† . This theory is supported by Historian Lotherington and Kamen, the latter who comments â€Å"the achievement of a united Spain was never an objective of the Catholic Kings† However this is too simplistic a view; because Isabella knew that the Castilian nobles would not accommodate for an Aragonese king, and the crown must rest upon the spouse of Aragon and Castile if unification was to be a realistic goal. Elliot suggests this when he speaks of a â€Å"Spanish inheritance† when referring to the Burgundian inheritance and Rady explains â€Å"Ferdinand held such influence in Castile this kingdom also might have been wrenched away from the new heir (Charles)† . Likewise J. Jones identifies â€Å"national unification† as a key policy of the Catholic Kings. It was therefore not â€Å"entirely by accident† that Spain as united under the same realm but the death of the Catholic Kings Portuguese dynastic ties that meant the Hapsburg dynasty and not the Portuguese dynasty was united under the Spanish crown, which as Isabella had predicted caused friction amongst Cisneros and Castilian nobles who resented Ferdinand fruitless attempts to produce an alternative Spanish heir. Failing to promote his more desirable Spanish grandson; Ferdinand to the throne, they knew like Isabella that the â€Å"Old interfering Catalan† – which they referred to him as, would eventually deliver his kingdom into their new crown if he was unable to establish a strong foreign dynastic alliance, of which he reluctantly did. The Hapsburg succession was â€Å"the last thing that Ferdinand and Isabella would have wished† , for Ferdinand only a last resort to an uncompromising Castile. But it was the road, if bumpy, to a Golden Age for Spain. When the Burgundian Charles first succeeded to the throne of Spain there was no sign of a Golden Age in Spain. Charles rejected the realm, considering Spain simply another of his territories in the Holy Roman Empire. In Brandi’s words his succession – â€Å"Hopelessly miscarried† . The young and shy king arrived, (overdue) illiterate in Spanish and assuming the offices of the land for Burgundian friends and for money, Charles made the worst possible impression. Thus without the attentive eye of the Catholic Kings the nobility grew in strength and confidents under a tentative government; â€Å"reopening old feuds† , the revolt of the Germania, Comuneros and in the Balearic Islands were a direct result of Charles neglect of Spanish affairs and could have been prevented. When Charles left Spain in September 1519 Spain was part of Charles Burgundian Empire The monarchy created by the Catholic Kings was a personal monarchy ruled in an absolute style, and therefore totally ungovernable in the way Charles had attempted to rule when he first arrived in Spain. The theory of new monarchy endorsed by historians such as Katherine Leach and Geoffrey Parker has been largely rebuked, particularly in the case of the monarchy Ferdinand and Isabella founded. What Elliot adequately identifies in the case of â€Å"new monarchy is Spain created by Ferdinand and Isabella must be entirely excluded from the European model, or alternatively the model itself is at default† . Absolutism was what the Catholic Kings more defiantly moved towards, this change from feudal to â€Å"absolute† and was characterised by subsequent weak and strong monarchs all across Europe. What is evident is that there was no â€Å"new monarchy† in such developments. Henry IV Isabella’s father was a â€Å"weak† monarch, his reign characterised by â€Å"a period of instability which the great nobles exploited freely† . The New Monarchy is mistaken for a period after 1500 where by â€Å"the monarchies of England, France, the Netherlands and Spain had all emerged victorious from long periods of civil wars with over mighty subjects† . In this context the Catholic Kings had succeeded not in the stripping, but the â€Å"taming† of the aristocracy. The Catholic Kings had tackled the political aspect of the nobility; denying them the right to vote in the Consejo Real – (Council of Castile), expanding the use of Corregidors and letrados – (civil servants trained in law) staffed by the â€Å"lesser nobility† to encourage political neutrality. The revolts Charles I faced when he left Spain in May 1520 were a reminder of the type of monarchy Ferdinand and Isabella’s had created. It was personnel, and required a decisive and affirmative monarch, as the Comenros rebels identified â€Å"it is not custom of Castile to be without king† . Perhaps this was the most important foundation of the Golden Age that the Catholic Kings created. By transferring political power from the nobles to the monarch they created a new form of national identity. The period of September 1517 – May 1522 was a time of â€Å"nationalism and revolt† and thus the Golden Age was established not in the Netherlands or any other part of the Empire, but in Spain. When Charles returned to Spain in July 1522 he adapted to the unique requirements of Spanish monarchy. He was freed of the influence of the Golden Fleece, upon the deaths of the unpopular statesmen Chievres in 1521 and Sauvage in 1518 Charles turned to Gattinara, an Italian statesman who Brandi identifies as â€Å"an influence to Charles Character as only Chievres had done before, as no one was to do again† . Yet from 1521 on the news of the revolts on Spain Charles began to rely more on Francis Cobos a Spaniard and ex-bureaucrat for the Catholic Kings and â€Å"thereafter the star of Cobos rose while that of Gattinara waned† . When Charles returned to Spain as Holy Roman emperor with his prestige greatly increased, Charles had matured, (now aged 22) and the more experienced personality of Charles the man; no longer strangled by his Burgundian advisers showed though. Lockyer is only half right to comment â€Å"Charles never became a prisoner to his ministers† because it was a lesson he learnt that coinciding with the fall of Gattinara, whom when he died in 1530, Charles did not replace with a new chancellor. Importantly, the Emperor rebuked the Spanish offices he had given to Burgundians, made some attempt to learn Spanish and created new councils of state run by Spaniards. Charles, â€Å"gradually† extended the use of these councils expanding the centralized government the Catholic Kings had created. It remains telling that royal authority was never to be challenged in Charles reign, although as Kamen correctly identifies â€Å"it would be a mistake to regard it as a triumph for absolutism, like the Catholic Kings before him, Charles sustained his authority over the aristocracy and the towns only by collaborating with them and making it unnecessary for them to claim more power than they already had† . The governance of Spain was, as it always had done, relied on Venality. By running his administration in the form of a pyramid, with the king at the apex , decisions appeared to have had the authority of the king, without the necessity of him being present. Charles paid far more attention to the administration of Spain than the rest of his realms as Holy Roman Emperor. Above all he showed his commitment to his Spanish subjects by marrying Isabella of Portugal and educating his son Phillip in Spain. With the support of his universal theories, the architect of that national state for which Ferdinand and Isabella had laid the foundation. Charles completed it† The style of government that the Catholic Kings created – for better or worse â€Å"helped to transform Charles V Empire into Phillip II Spanish Empire† Under Phillip II the Empire was undoubtedly centred on Spain. It was governed by what Braudel describes as â€Å"a metropolitan power, a policy initiated by Charles as well as his predecessors† . This description could not be more right in the light of Phillip II. When Phillip succeeded to the throne in 1556, â€Å"the Spanish monarchy came home† . The Spanish king relived himself of the burden of touring his Empire and ordered the building of the great El Escorial – a monumnet of Spain’s golden age, completed in 1584 some 21 miles from Madrid; where he spent much of his reign. After his return from Flanders in 1559 – Phillip never again left the Peninsula; â€Å"Friend or foe; they saw him as a spider, sitting motionlessly in his web† . In an accurate portrayal of Phillip the Venetian Ambassador reported â€Å"The King, has no regard but for Spaniards† , so widespread was the â€Å"hatred of the Spaniard † that it began to spread everywhere in Europe, a sign of the times and a warning of what lay ahead. Yet for a few glorious decades Spain was to be the greatest power on Earth† under a Spanish Monarch. Phillips personal role in the government of Spain far outstripped that of his father. Taking word from a letter from his father warning him of â€Å"falling under the influence or becoming the instrument of feuds† he involved himself personally in affairs of government in an isolated manner. In 1583 the Venetian Ambassador argued â€Å"The whole Spanish Monarchy is held together by the authority and wisdom of the king, if he were to die everything would fall into confusion and danger† , Geoffrey Parker may have gone to far too suggest â€Å"Phillip ruled absolutely† , a concept rebuked by historians Elliot, Woodward, Lockyer and Kamen who identify Phillips ability to â€Å"control† rather than canon the Castilian aristocracy, as his predecessors had done similarly. Yet what remains broadly undisputed, is Phillip in character and policy was Spanish; and any Golden Age in the reign of Phillip, was a Golden Age for Spain. An evident development of the Golden Age of Spain was the emergence of a cultural identity which the Catholic Kings laid foundations for. Importantly however such developments where confined to the aristocracy of Castile, which estimates suggests concerned roughly 10% of the population . When Historians speak of a Golden Age they acknowledge it did not concern the majority of Spaniards during this period and it would be naive to think otherwise. Although this arguments perhaps grows in weight as it was during the Golden Age that the laity experienced a decline in living standards. To the majority of Spaniards living on the great enclosures of the nobility there was no Golden Age, and the Cultural Revolution of empire and Catholicism did little to affect them positively. The case of Charles I and the peasant (who did not recognise him) expressed what much of the laity felt like under the monarchy of Charles; describing him as the worst of his five predecessors of Castile since his taxes where ruining them, and all the wealth from the Indies and Castile was being sent abroad. But for the elite few the Golden Age was tangible in existence, and what it meant to be a Spaniard, or more accurately a Castilian was precious to them, a cultural flair the Catholic Kings had reimbursed. Isabella and Ferdinand greatest cultural success was the renewal of the reconquista in a ten year war that brought the final defeat of the moors and the end of the 800 year reconquista in Granada in 1492. It was this achievement that earned them the title â€Å"The Catholic Kings†. Long centuries of fighting against the moors in the peninsula had led to the â€Å"glorification of military virtues† and the concept of the â€Å"Hidalgo† the knight who lived for war and glory was widely accepted as the ideal for a Spaniard. 16th century literature such as the â€Å"cantar de gesta† (songs of heroic deeds) tells the story of the legend of El Cid, a Castilian nobleman and mercenary from the 12th and 13th century who became the national hero of Spain and the cultural aspiration of this period. By completing the reconquista the Catholic Kings had â€Å"united the Castilian nobles under the banner of Christianity† and tapped into Spain’s cultural ideal, doing much to; â€Å"enhance the power and prestige of the monarchy† both domestically and on the world stage. The Catholic Kings were responsible for ensuring the crusading ambitions of Spain never lost momentum and continued an active foreign policy throughout their reign. Only weeks after victory in Granada, Isabella had announced her wish for a crusade on the shores of Africa and in 1494 she persuaded Alexander VI to grant her the Cruzada tax for such a campaign. Her dying wish to her husband was to devote himself â€Å"unremittingly to the conquest of Africa and to the war for the faith against the moors† . In Italy Ferdinand gained a fierce reputation following significant victories against the French that made Spanish troops â€Å"feared throughout Europe† , more importantly he seized control of Navarre uniting the state into Spain and pursuing the reconquista into Africa at the dying request of Isabella capturing a thin coastal strip along the southern African coast including the potent city of Oran. The acquisition of the New World was beginning to expand so by the reign of Charles I â€Å"Spain possessed an extensive overseas empire† . An achievement often dismissed as a lucky acquirement by historians such as Kamen and Pendrill, describing the expedition as â€Å"reluctantly backed† and â€Å"Spain did not have any distinctive expertise in seafaring† . What perhaps is forgotten is the immense cost of any such expedition and the annual allowance of 12,000 maravedis along with other Benefits that Columbus received in 1486 from the Catholic Kings in order to keep his offer confined to Spain. Whilst the French, Portuguese and English Courts had dismissed Columbus, the Catholic kings spotted potential, but restricted by their finances in 1486 because of the war against the Moors they delayed (but secured) any future expedition. As Elliot explains Spain had a â€Å"tradition of maritime experience† , acquired from her overseas territories in the Mediterranean and the Canaries. The Foundations of the New World provided by the Catholic Kings where created on a deeper basis than simply luck. The foreign policy of the Catholic Kings formed a solid foundation for the Golden Age. They had refused to accept 1492 as the end of the military values for Spaniards; ushering in a less hostile and inward looking society. Instead reconquista was marked by the beginning of â€Å"Castilian imperialism† , a nation ready to embark upon the European, African and world stage where it had already made a significant impact. It was with justification that Ferdinand could remark â€Å"For over 700 years the crown of Spain has not been as great or as resplendent as it is now, both in the west and the east, and all, after God, by my work and labour† Indeed Spain was greater than it ever had been and was certainly looking outwards; confirmed by Isabella’s opportunistic succession plans. In decades to come Spain was to become the aggressor asserting its authority across Europe and the World. A Spanish Golden Age in foreign policy can however be considered exempt from the reign of Charles I. As Karl Brandi explains;† the emphasis laid on the primacy of the emperor in Europe, was in direct contradiction to the theory of the national state† Charles was the Holy Roman Emperor, of which Spain played a significant but not central part. Attempts to pin a nationality on Charles during his reign as Charles V are futile as â€Å"he was essentially a man of universal outlook . Historians such as Rady and Brandi give emphasis to Charles V the Burgundian, commenting in 1520 to the states-general (Netherlands); â€Å"His heart had always been among them (literally no their side)† . However Kamen and Lockyer tend to lay weight on Charles the Spaniard. Rebuking a French clergyman who denounced him speaking Castilian Charles replied â€Å"do not expect me to speak any other language but Spanish, which is so noble that it should be learned and understood by all Christian people† . It was in fact the official language of his cortege in the latter part of his reign although Charles spoke more fluently in Dutch and French. Historians generally accept that Charles made neither the Low Countries nor Spain the capital of his Empire. As monarch of each realm Charles cleverly adjusted himself to appear favourably to each of them. Evidence lies in the many letters he sent to his realms explaining his reason to depart Spain for Italy in the summer of 1529, he tailored each correspondence differently. To Castile his argument was centred on the church and â€Å"visiting subjects† , To his sister Mary, regent of the Netherlands (bordering France) suppressing â€Å"France† and his commanders Philibert of Orange and Gerard de Rye for â€Å"honour and reputation† . Charles was â€Å"a lord of many states: a Burgundian among the Burgundians; a Spaniard in Castile and Aragon; an Italian among the Italians† . Therefore in policy Charles loyalties lay with all his Empire; and troubles in his Northern territories most notably against the French, Turks and German Lutherans kept him occupied in Mainland Europe. Spanish interests, especially in the Mediterranean against the Turkish Navy and in Africa were neglected for problems in the rest of his realms that were not â€Å"self supporting† . There can be no doubt that Spaniards â€Å"basked in the reflected sunlight of Imperial glory† , of which they shared amongst his other realms. Over his reign Charles entourage was transformed from the â€Å"myriad formalities of the Burgundian court to the solemnity of a Spaniard† , and as David Lockyer identifies â€Å"throughout his reign more Imperial titles where granted to Spaniards than any other nationality† , an extraordinary feat considering the circumstances of the dominant role of the Burgundian court at the beginning of his reign. Likewise the extensive amount of Spanish troops used on the battlefield of the Holy Roman Emperor gave Charles Imperial army the distinct recognition of a Spaniard. Although Henry Kamen appears to dismiss the role of Spanish troops as; â€Å"acting only as contingents in a larger force† , based on the evidence that Spanish contributions in numerical terms were limited to selective enterprises it was the case that the Spanish presence was recognisable enough so that (as described by Lotherington and Elliot) â€Å"the rest of Europe feared and respected her power† and â€Å"the influence of Spaniards became resented and then hated† across Europe. When assessing Charles in relation to the Golden Age of Spain it is important to identify that â€Å"Spain became a great power in its own right only under Phillip II † and â€Å"Charles presided over the start of Spain’s golden age† rather than being part of it. Yet like the Catholic Kings Charles contributed to the rise of the golden age by expressing Spain’s cultural identity though his Imperial Empire. And when in 1556 he abdicated, he retuned not to his birth place in the Burgundies but to Spain, passing the heart of his Empire into the hands of his Spanish son Phillip. Charles born a Burgundian became a Spaniard by choice, and this, more than any formal act of policy, made him loved and respected by his Spanish subjects† . Charles had put the â€Å"imperial† into Spain’s Empire a unique foundation of the Catholic Kings that they had ultimately founded by succession. From the foundations of the Catholic Kings and Charles I, Phillip II was handed a vast and impressive domain, and although the title does not fully acknowledge the diversity of her territories â€Å"contemporaries knew it as the monarquia Espanola (Spanish Monarchy)† . Generally, although not exclusively historians i. e. Lotherington, Kamen, Elliot and Cooper agree that that the peak of the Golden Age came in the reign of Phillip II. Lotherington and Elliot also identify the â€Å"crisis of the 90’s† as the war in France, England and the Netherlands intensified and the domestic scene turned to revolt in Aragon. John Cooper and Elliot point towards the death of Phillip II as the decline where Spain, or rather Castile was â€Å"by 1600 a country that had suddenly lost its national purpose† Kamen on the other hand takes issue with the decline itself as a â€Å"historical myth† but at least acknowledges â€Å"Spain under Phillip II attained the heights of imperial authority† . Historians such as Parker and Lockyer suggest that a decline in the 1590’s was â€Å"to simplistic† and that â€Å"The Spanish Empire appeared far stronger at the death of Phillip III, than at the death of Phillip II† . Although Parker and Lockyer hold some weight in their argument, such a claim is difficult to grasp when considering that by 1621 Spain had withdrawn itself from all its conflicts in Europe, unable to support itself and forced into the humiliation of â€Å"making peace with rebels and heretics† . Likewise the â€Å"failed leadership† of the king Phillip III (who passed effective responsibility onto the corrupt Duke of Lerma, his â€Å"valido†/Favourite) failed to make use of more than a decade of peace to mend the structural failings at home. Phillip II who knew his son well once commented â€Å"I am afraid they will govern him† he had been right to fear the worst. By 1598 the Golden Age of foreign policy had been and gone. Ironically it was in the 17th century, as Spain â€Å"slowly abandoned its military imperialism† , The Golden age of Arts and Literature flourished under the very decline of Spain. The cultural aspirations that the Catholic Kings had preserved, become imperialised under Charles and began under Phillips Spanish Empire blossomed in an era that, for the first time in modern Spanish history, Spain was turning in on itself in agony of self appraisal. Accompanying the glorification of Spain’s Art and Literature in a bygone period of world dominance forth came the myth of the â€Å"Golden Age† visible in the arts, architecture and literature. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, regarded as a great Spanish novelist in the early 17th century wrote of â€Å"happy times and ages where those which the ancients termed the golden age† only seven years after Phillips death – evidently the majority of Spanish society did not experience a Golden Age under Phillip, similarly to the peasant Charles had met decades before. Religion was a key theme of the Golden Age of arts, architecture and literature; it is estimated that around 90% of Spanish Renaissance paintings where of religious subject. The Burial of the Count of Orgaz†, the work of El Greco is typical of the period, as the painting adopts both cultural aspects: the legend of â€Å"Don Gonzalo Ruiz†, (known for his religious piety) in the theme of a miracle, as the knight ascends into heaven. Phillip II’s evident love for artwork greatly contributed to Spain’s Golden Age of Art and Literature; firstly many of his paintings where imported as th e greatest art works remained Flemish and Italian, but by the 17th century Spain began to contribute to some of the greatest artworks of the age. One of the great Spanish artist, Diego Velazquez composed Spanish concepts of honour and dignity in the painting â€Å"the surrender of Breda† – a great victory for the Spanish in the Netherlands. As the victor; General Spinola is seen placing his arm on the shoulder of the defeated Dutch commander Justin sympathetically. Architecturally the great El Escorial, completed in 1584, was by far the most symbolised of Spain’s Golden Age; a palace, a monastery and a tomb all the Hapsburg monarchs of Spain. Such grand structural designs had actually begun under Ferdinand and Isabella. In the city of Granada the Royal Chapel, the burial place of the Catholic Kings and the Cathedral built in the centre of the Moorish palace in Cordoba to show Catholic dominance over the Islamic world were symbolic of the cultural success of the Catholic Kings and the success of the reconquista. The painting competition in Madrid in 1627 was arranged by Phillip IV to display the expulsion of the Moriscos, embodied the religious intolerance and the Spanish notion for purity of blood. Aside from the vast cultural contributions the Catholic Kings made to the art and literature of the17th century, its development largely arose from the imperial concepts of Charles and Phillip, the latter having dedicated himself to it. The contribution the Catholic Kings made to religion was far more substantial than that of art, literature and architecture. The work of the Catholic Kings in the Spanish church enabled the clergy to adapt to the ideals of the Spanish monarchy and lay the foundation for one of the main defences against the reformation; The Inquisition. It is commonly accepted that the Catholic Kings did not significantly reform the church although changes did occur. The Collage of Valladolid 1484 and the University of Alcada 1508 was founded to encourage new learning and Alexander VI gave Ferdinand permission to reform the monastic orders in 1491, which Cisneros carried out with â€Å"characteristic energy† . Although â€Å"the impact of these reforms should not be exaggerated† the extent to which is debated. J. Elliot suggests that the reforms under the Catholic Kings â€Å"gave the church a new strength and vigour at the very moment the church was everywhere under heavy attack† whilst Kamen; who made extensive research into the Spanish church at this time argues â€Å"nothing remotely resembling a reformation of the church occurred in Spain† . What Kamen fails to emphasis is Ferdinand and Isabella’s considerable achievement in creating; as Lockyer describes a â€Å"national Spanish Catholic Church† with reforms that took the church into â€Å"royal control† In 1486 effective control over the appointment of clerics was granted to the Spanish crown. The crusada tax was renewed in 1494 and successfully renewed throughout the reigns of Charles and Phillip accompanied with further grants. The new world was granted all major benefices in 1508 and the inquisition from the moment of its foundation â€Å"identified itself in a particularly way with the Spanish Church† . Nationalism, a key cause of the reformation in the 16th century particularly in Germany, England and the Netherlands had no effect in Spain because their Church had effectively been nationalised. It is certainly telling that as Kamen points out â€Å"The gains that the English monarchy made though the reformation were already achieved completely in Spain without any change of religion† . Ferdinand and Isabella did not reform the church from abuses and corruption, they brought it under† royal control† helping to unify Spain under one religion; uniformity of the Catholic faith that to become a key concept of the Golden Age of Spain in Foreign Policy. Catholicism was chief to Spain’s golden age but a good relation with the pope was not a ecessity. Charles sack of Rome in 1527 was perhaps the most evident example, as Spanish soldiers amongst other nationalities devastated the Holy City. As one eye witness reported â€Å"we took Rome by storm, killed 6000 men, plundered the houses carried of what we found in churches and elsewhere† . Likewise the â€Å"most Catholic King† often faced â€Å"strained relations† with the papacy; accusing the papacy if â€Å"failing in your duty towards God† in 1589, â€Å"God is Spanish† , Phillip II once commented. It was the Catholic Kings who had culturally reimbursed the Catholic faith so that â€Å"Catholicism and national interests where so closely interwoven in Spain that it soon became impossible to distinguish one from another† . Catholicism soon became symbolic of Spain’s Golden Age as Spanish monarchs became engulfed in Europe’s religious conflict. Charles I against the Schmalkaldic League in Germany and Phillips II conflicts with the Turks, Dutch rebels, French wars and the war with England. Even the Duke of Parma’s pleas that religious concessions could â€Å"pacify the Dutch states† where ignored by Phillip who persisted â€Å"they are all to embrace the Roman Catholic Faith and the exercise of that alone is to be permitted† . Phillip writing as early as 1562 explained â€Å"neither my welfare nor that of my states will allow me to neglect helping the Catholics† . Phillip II â€Å"an unquestionably loyal son of the Catholic Church† certainly makes Jonathan Lewis doubts of Phillip II religious piety appear doubtful. The religious unity which the Catholic Kings established had devastating effects for minorities living in Spain, a policy which Historians have widely criticised the Catholic Kings for by establishing the inquisition and increasing hostility to Jews, Conversos and Moors. Henry Kamen famously coined the phrase â€Å"society in conflict† to describe amongst the reigns of their successors greater social divisions as a result of the Catholic Kings religiously intolerant police